Gender in bilateral diplomacy
Short description
In the past two decades, an increasing number of women have entered bilateral diplomacy as diplomatic officials. On average, women now make up 23% of bilateral ambassadors globally, and they constitute an even larger share of the lower-level diplomats. Until recently, however, the Foreign Service remained a patriarchal stronghold, indeed one of the most male-dominated spheres of the state. Although women served many crucial diplomatic functions as wives, typists, servants and more, they were prohibited from holding diplomatic office well into the 20th century. Marriage bars on female diplomats remained in place until the 1970s, forcing women to choose between having a diplomatic career or getting married. The recent entry of large numbers of female diplomatic officials thus constitutes a rather dramatic change in what used to be a fully male-dominated institution. The aim of this project is to identify and examine the operation of gender norms, networks and practices in bilateral diplomacy as carried out by ambassadors and career diplomats.
2025. Towns, Ann E. "Gendered labor: Appearance management and the unequal extraction of effort and time among ambassadors." Cooperation and Conflict 60(2): 237-260.
2023. Niklasson, Birgitta and Towns, Ann E., “Diplomatic Gender Patterns and Symbolic Status Signaling: Introducing the GenDip dataset on gender and diplomatic representation. International Studies Quarterly 67(4).
2022. Niklasson, Birgitta and Towns, Ann E., “Introduction: Approaching Gender and Ministries of Foreign Affairs.” The Hague Journal of Diplomacy 17(3):339-369.
2022. Towns, Ann E. “WAW, No Women? Foucault’s Reverse Discourse and Gendered Subjects in Diplomatic Networks” Global Society 36(3):347-67.
2022. Kreft, Anne-Kathrin, Birgitta Niklasson, and Towns, Ann E.,"Do gender patterns in diplomacy disappear over time?" European Journal of Politics and Gender 5(3):279-302.
2020. Towns, Ann E., “’Diplomacy is a Feminine Art’: Feminised Figurations of the Diplomat” Review of International Studies 46, 573-593.
2020. Towns, Ann E, Jezierska, Katarzyna, Kreft, Anne-Kathrin and Niklasson, Birgitta . “Covid-19 and Gender: A Necessary Connection in Diplomatic Studies” Hague Journal of Diplomacy 15(4):636-47.
2019. Aggestam, Karin and Towns, Ann E., “The Gender Turn in Diplomacy: A New Research Agenda” International Feminist Journal of Politics 21(1):9–28.
2017. Aggestam, Karin and Towns, Ann E., eds. "Gendering Diplomacy and International Negotiations". New York: Palgrave MacMillan.
2017. Towns, Ann E. and Niklasson, Birgitta. "Gender, International Status, and Ambassador Appointments", Foreign Policy Analysis 13: 521-540.
2017. Aggestam, Karin and Towns, Ann E., “Diplomacy – A Gendered Institution”. In Pauline Kerr and Geoffrey Wiseman (eds) Diplomacy in a Globalizing World, second edition. New York: Oxford University Press.
2017. Towns, Ann E., Kreft, Anne-Kathrin and Niklasson, Birgitta. “The Empowerment of Women in Diplomacy” in Amy Alexander, Catherine Bolzendahl and Farida Jalalzai (eds) Measuring Women’s Political Empowerment Across the Globe: Strategies, Challenges and Future Research. New York: Palgrave MacMillan.
2017. Aggestam, Karin and Towns, Ann E., “Introduction” in Karin Aggestam and Ann Towns, eds. Gendering Diplomacy and International Negotiations. New York: Palgrave MacMillan.
2017. Aggestam, Karin and Towns, Ann E., “Conclusions” in Karin Aggestam and Ann Towns, eds. Gendering Diplomacy and International Negotiations. New York: Palgrave MacMillan.
2017. Niklasson, Birgitta and Towns, Ann E., “Gender, status, and ambassador appointments to militarized and violent countries” in Jennifer Cassidy, ed. Gender and Diplomacy. New York: Routledge, pp 100-119.